Yet despite decades of progress, the global path toward gender parity in employment remains uneven, slowed by structural inequalities, cultural expectations and policy gaps that continue to limit opportunities for millions.

According to data from international labour agencies, female labour force participation has risen steadily over the past two decades, particularly in emerging economies.

In South Asia, participation has fluctuated due to social constraints but is now showing signs of recovery, driven by education, digital work platforms and government initiatives aimed at financial inclusion.Still, the gap persists.

Women globally earn on average about 20% less than men, a disparity that widens in informal sectors where legal protections are minimal. In countries with large rural populations, women often remain confined to unpaid or underpaid labor, particularly in agriculture and domestic work.“In many regions, women’s work is still invisible in economic statistics,” said a senior economist at an international development organization.

“They contribute significantly, but without recognition, protection or fair wages.”The COVID-19 pandemic had a disproportionate impact on women’s employment, reversing years of gains. Women were more likely to lose jobs due to their concentration in service sectors such as hospitality, retail and education.

Many also exited the workforce entirely due to increased caregiving responsibilities at home.While employment levels have rebounded in many countries, women’s return has been slower.

Analysts point to a “care economy crisis,” where the burden of unpaid domestic labor continues to fall heavily on women, limiting their ability to pursue full-time employment.

In India, government-backed self-help groups have emerged as a key driver of women’s economic participation.

These collectives, often based in rural areas, provide microfinance, skill development and entrepreneurship opportunities. Similar models in Africa and Southeast Asia have also proven effective in boosting women’s financial independence.

Digital transformation is playing a crucial role. The rise of remote work, e-commerce and online freelancing platforms has created new pathways for women to engage in the economy without leaving their homes an important factor in societies where mobility restrictions persist.

However, digital access itself remains unequal. Women are less likely than men to own smartphones or have access to the internet in many developing regions, creating a “digital gender divide” that risks deepening existing inequalities.

Education remains one of the strongest predictors of women’s economic empowerment. Globally, female literacy rates have improved significantly, and in many countries, girls now outperform boys in secondary education.

Yet this educational advantage does not always translate into workforce participation, particularly in societies with restrictive gender norms.Cultural expectations continue to shape women’s career trajectories.

In many parts of the world, women are expected to prioritize family responsibilities over professional ambitions. Marriage and motherhood often mark turning points where careers stall or end altogether.

Even in developed economies, women face barriers to advancement. The “glass ceiling” persists in corporate and political leadership, with women underrepresented in senior decision-making roles. According to recent data, women hold less than a third of managerial positions globally.

Policy interventions have shown mixed results. Paid parental leave, childcare support and flexible work arrangements have improved outcomes in some countries, particularly in Scandinavia.

However, in many parts of the world, such policies are either absent or poorly implemented.There is also growing recognition of the need to address workplace harassment and discrimination.

The #MeToo movement brought global attention to these issues, prompting legal reforms and corporate accountability measures.

Yet enforcement remains inconsistent, and many women continue to face unsafe work environments.Despite these challenges, there are signs of transformation.

Women entrepreneurs are driving innovation, particularly in sectors such as technology, healthcare and sustainable development. Female-led startups are gaining visibility and attracting investment, though funding disparities persist.

Youth activism is also reshaping narratives. Younger generations are increasingly challenging traditional gender roles, advocating for equal opportunities and pushing institutions to adopt more inclusive practices.

Experts emphasize that achieving gender equality in the workforce is not just a social imperative but an economic one. Studies show that closing gender gaps could significantly boost global GDP, making it a priority for policymakers and businesses alike.

“The question is no longer whether women should be part of the workforce,” said the economist. “It is how to ensure they can participate fully, fairly and safely.

”As societies continue to evolve, the future of women’s work will depend on sustained efforts to dismantle barriers, invest in education and infrastructure, and redefine cultural norms that have long constrained half the world’s population.

Decades ago, that stretch of land was not a lake but part of the sprawling Bishrampur open-cast coal mineone of many that powered India’s industrial rise.

Today, it is part of Kenapara Eco Park, a reclaimed landscape where paddle boats glide over deep green water and a floating restaurant serves visitors on weekends.

Rajak’s life mirrors this transformation. Once promised a job in the mine after giving up his land, he says he was denied work due to a disability. Now, he guards the same site no longer a source of coal, but of cautious hope.

“At least I am earning something here now,” he says.A second life for exhausted landIndia, the world’s second-largest coal producer and consumer, is confronting a new reality: hundreds of mines are reaching the end of their productive life. In response, authorities and state-run firms are turning to land reclamation and adaptive reuse to transform these sites into sustainable economic zones.

The Bishrampur mine, spread across 1,472 hectares, produced over 38 million tonnes of coal between 1961 and 2018. When reserves ran dry, its vast pits some naturally filled with rainwater over time offered an unexpected opportunity.

Instead of leaving behind barren scars, local authorities, with support from South Eastern Coalfields Ltd, a subsidiary of Coal India Ltd, began converting the site into a tourism hub.

Boating facilities, cottages, a floating restaurant, and green spaces gradually replaced extraction machinery and dust. What was once an industrial void is now a modest but growing attraction, drawing around 150 visitors on weekends.

At the heart of this transformation are women from the Shiv Shakti Mahila Gram Sangathan, a self-help group that manages key operations at the eco park. For many of them, the shift is not just economic but deeply personal.

“In the village, most women are only housewives. Our movements were restricted,” says Anjani Singh, a boat operator. “Working here, meeting officials and people gave us confidence.”Their work rowing boats, managing visitors, running the floating restaurant has reshaped how they are seen in their community.

No longer identified solely by family roles, they are now known for their work.Savita Gupta, who runs the floating eatery, describes her journey as transformative.

Once confined to domestic responsibilities, she now serves tourists, manages supplies, and earns an income. “I hope my daughter will learn from my life and think about becoming an independent woman,” she says.

The group’s leader, Pooja Sahu, adds that the change is as much about identity as it is about livelihood. “We wanted to be known by our own names,” she says.

The eco park is only one part of a broader regeneration effort. Nearby, a pisciculture project has turned the lake into a source of fish production, supplying local markets and creating additional income streams.

A 40-hectare solar park, generating 12 megawatts of power, employs local residents, including young technicians like Pawan Kumar, who now earns a steady monthly income.

Reforestation efforts are also underway. Hundreds of hectares have been planted with trees such as sheesham and mango, slowly restoring ecological balance to land once stripped bare.

Together, these initiatives represent a multi-pronged approach: tourism, renewable energy, agriculture, and forestry all layered onto a former mining landscape.Fragile gainsYet, the revival is far from secure.

The women who operate the boats say they bear much of the financial burden themselves, paying monthly fees and covering maintenance costs. Infrastructure remains patchy, and promotional efforts are limited.

A nightly light show, once a key attraction, has been non-functional for months due to technical issues. Visitor numbers fluctuate, and without sustained investment, growth remains uncertain.

Officials from SECL have recently visited the site the first such inspection in years but concrete plans for expansion or maintenance have yet to be detailed.“Currently, it is managed by the district authority,” said an SECL official, adding that improvements are under consideration.

For locals, the concern is that without consistent support, the project could stagnate another chapter in a long history of promises tied to the land.

As night deepens over Kenapara, Rajak continues his patrol, the beam of his torch tracing slow arcs across the water. The quiet is punctuated only by the creak of boats and distant voices.

He has seen this land through its many phases farmland, mine, and now a tentative experiment in renewal. Each transformation has brought both opportunity and loss.“I’ve seen how things end here,” he says.

“This time, let it not end.”His words capture the delicate balance of India’s mine-to-eco-park model. It is a story of resilience and reinvention, but also of unfinished transitions.

The lakes may be calm, the trees slowly returning, and the boats moving again but beneath the surface lies a deeper question: can these reclaimed landscapes truly sustain the communities that once depended on coal?

For now, the answer drifts somewhere between the past and the promise of what these waters might yet become.

The agreement emerged from the 70th session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, widely known as CSW, the UN’s principal global body dedicated to promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women.

Negotiations at the meeting, held at United Nations Headquarters in New York City, resulted in a set of “agreed conclusions” that explicitly reference “women in detention and in imprisonment,” marking a significant shift in how international policy frameworks address justice systems and women’s rights.

Advocates and human rights experts described the inclusion as “groundbreaking,” noting that the issue of female incarceration has historically been absent from global gender equality debates.

“This is really the first time in 70 years of this commission that the topic of women in prison is being taken seriously,” said Patsilí Toledo, a member of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women and a lecturer specialising in gender and criminal justice.

“It sends a very strong signal that the international community recognises the unique challenges faced by women deprived of their liberty,” she said.

Rising female incarceration:The recognition comes amid growing concern among researchers and activists about a global surge in the number of women behind bars.

According to international estimates, more than 740,000 women and girls are currently detained worldwide, representing roughly 7% of the global prison population. Since 2000, the number of incarcerated women has increased by nearly 60%, a rate far higher than the growth in male prison populations.

Experts warn that the true scale of female incarceration may be even larger due to inconsistent reporting and limited transparency in many countries.The issue also extends beyond the women themselves.

Approximately 19,000 children are believed to be living in prison facilities with their mothers around the world, highlighting the wider social consequences of female imprisonment.

Campaigners say the rise reflects deeper structural inequalities including poverty, discriminatory laws and gender-based violence that push many women into the criminal justice system.

“These are not just legal problems; they are social and economic issues,” said Mary Robinson, former president of Ireland and former UN high commissioner for human rights.“For too long, women who have experienced criminalisation have been largely invisible in global conversations about gender equality,” Robinson said.Visibility is important but it must now be matched by action.”

The inclusion of incarcerated women in the CSW conclusions follows years of advocacy by civil society groups, legal experts and formerly imprisoned women.One of the leading voices in the campaign has been Women Beyond Walls, a global initiative that seeks to highlight the experiences of women affected by criminal justice systems and advocate for alternatives to imprisonment.

In 2023, the organisation coordinated an open letter urging international feminist forums and policymakers to stop overlooking women impacted by incarceration.

The letter argued that feminist movements had often focused on issues such as workplace equality, education and political participation while paying insufficient attention to women who encounter the justice system.

“Women in prison have long been invisible in the global women’s rights movement,” said Sabrina Mahtani, a human rights lawyer and founder of Women Beyond Walls.“This moment builds on years of advocacy by formerly incarcerated women and civil society organisations,” she said, adding that greater media attention had also helped raise awareness.

Addressing systemic barriersThe conclusions adopted at CSW outline a series of recommendations to governments, international institutions and civil society organisations.

They highlight the need to eliminate discriminatory laws, improve access to justice for women and address structural barriers that make women more vulnerable to incarceration.The document also calls for stronger measures to prevent violence against women and girls, which experts say often plays a significant role in cases involving female defendants.

Many incarcerated women have histories of abuse, coercion or economic vulnerability, factors that can influence both their alleged crimes and their treatment within legal systems.

Human rights advocates argue that many justice systems remain poorly equipped to deal with these realities.Earlier this year, a group of UN human rights experts warned that conditions for women deprived of their liberty remain deeply inadequate in many countries.

They said women prisoners frequently face overcrowding, limited healthcare, poor sanitation and a lack of gender-sensitive legal protections.The decision to explicitly include women prisoners in the CSW conclusions represents a broader shift in how international institutions approach gender equality and justice.

While previous agreements have addressed discrimination, violence and economic inequality, advocates say the intersection between criminal justice and women’s rights has often been overlooked.

By acknowledging the issue within the world’s leading forum on gender equality, campaigners hope governments will now be pushed to adopt policies that reduce female incarceration and improve prison conditions.

Robinson said governments must address the underlying causes that drive women into prison.“That means tackling poverty, discrimination and violence, and investing in community-based solutions that support women and their families rather than pushing them deeper into the criminal justice system,” she said.

Experts note that alternatives to incarceration such as community service, rehabilitation programmes and social support systems could significantly reduce prison populations while addressing the root causes of crime.

Despite broad support for the agreement, it was not adopted unanimously.Diplomats involved in the negotiations said United States voted against the final conclusions, though most UN member states backed the language on incarcerated women and broader justice reforms.

Still, advocates say the agreement represents a major milestone.By formally recognising the challenges faced by women in detention, they argue, the United Nations has opened the door for deeper reforms and increased scrutiny of justice systems worldwide.

For campaigners, the next challenge will be translating international commitments into concrete policy changes.Human rights organisations are calling on governments to review sentencing laws, improve prison conditions and expand alternatives to detention for non-violent offences.

They also stress the importance of data collection, noting that reliable information about women in prison remains limited in many regions.Without accurate data, they say, governments cannot fully understand the scale of the issue or develop effective policies.

For advocates who have spent years pushing for recognition of incarcerated women, the UN agreement marks an important moment but only the beginning of a longer process.“

The global community is finally acknowledging women deprived of liberty as part of the women’s rights agenda,” Mahtani said.“Now the real work begins.”