Mongolia’s rapidly warming climate is transforming some of the most southerly permafrost landscapes in the Northern Hemisphere, altering ecosystems, water systems and traditional pastoral livelihoods across large areas of the country.

Researchers and local communities report visible changes in northern Mongolia, where frozen ground that has remained intact for centuries is increasingly thawing as temperatures rise. The shift is affecting wetlands, rivers, grazing lands and wildlife habitats in a country whose environment has long been shaped by cold climatic conditions.

Although Mongolia is not commonly associated with the Arctic, scientists note that many of its environmental processes closely resemble those found in higher northern latitudes. The country experiences severe winters and contains extensive permafrost regions. Ulaanbaatar, the national capital, is widely recognized as the coldest capital city in the world, while substantial portions of Mongolia lie within the Arctic Ocean drainage basin.

Permafrost, the layer of ground that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years, plays a critical role in maintaining the stability of Mongolia’s northern landscapes. It regulates water movement, supports wetland systems and helps sustain vegetation that serves as grazing land for livestock and habitat for wildlife.

Researchers working in northern Mongolia have documented growing evidence that these frozen soils are becoming increasingly unstable. As permafrost thaws, the physical structure of the land changes. Ground subsidence, shifts in drainage patterns and the formation or disappearance of wetlands are becoming more common in affected regions.

Photographic evidence from northern Mongolia shows horses grazing near wetlands shaped by permafrost-dependent hydrological systems. Scientists say such landscapes are particularly sensitive to rising temperatures because their ecological balance depends on the persistence of frozen ground beneath the surface.

Changes in permafrost are also influencing freshwater ecosystems. Lakes, streams and wetlands that rely on frozen soils to regulate water flow are experiencing alterations in size, depth and seasonal behavior. Researchers say these shifts have implications for biodiversity, water availability and ecosystem resilience.

Bird populations that depend on wetland habitats are among the species affected by environmental changes. Water bodies in northern Mongolia provide breeding and feeding grounds for migratory birds and other wildlife. Any modification to hydrological conditions can influence the ecological functions these habitats perform.

The impacts extend beyond natural ecosystems and are increasingly being felt by rural communities. Livestock herding remains a central component of Mongolia’s economy and cultural identity. Many families depend on seasonal grazing patterns that have developed over generations in response to local environmental conditions.

Herders in permafrost regions report noticeable changes in grazing conditions as warming temperatures alter pasture quality and water availability. According to local observations, areas that once remained moist and productive throughout the grazing season are becoming more vulnerable to drying and ecological stress.

Among domestic animals, yaks are considered particularly vulnerable to warming conditions. The animals depend on cool temperatures, reliable water supplies and moist pastures. Rising temperatures and changing environmental conditions are placing additional pressure on herding systems that rely on yak populations for food production and income generation.

Herders have reported concerns about the effects of changing pasture conditions on milk production. Yak milk is used to produce a range of traditional foods, including airag and cheese, which form part of local diets and economic activity in rural communities. Reduced pasture quality can affect both livestock health and agricultural productivity.

Researchers emphasize that scientific monitoring alone cannot fully capture the scale and significance of environmental transformation underway in Mongolia’s permafrost regions. Local communities possess generations of accumulated knowledge about seasonal cycles, snow cover, water behavior and ecological conditions.

According to Vera Kuklina, an associate research professor in the Department of Geographical Sciences at the University of Maryland, local and Indigenous communities have observed changes in frozen landscapes long before many of those trends appeared in scientific datasets. She said knowledge developed through long-term interaction with these environments offers valuable insights into ongoing environmental change.

Kuklina noted that integrating scientific research with community observations provides a broader understanding of how climate-related changes affect both ecosystems and human societies. Such collaboration, she said, helps identify impacts that may not be immediately visible through conventional measurements alone.

Scientists studying Mongolia’s cryosphere increasingly view the country as an important location for understanding broader patterns of climate change across cold-region environments. Because Mongolia sits near the southern limit of extensive Northern Hemisphere permafrost, changes occurring there may provide insight into how frozen landscapes respond to sustained warming.

Researchers continue to monitor shifts in vegetation, hydrology and soil stability as temperatures rise. The observations contribute to a growing body of evidence showing that climate-driven changes in permafrost are affecting environmental systems far beyond the Arctic itself.

For Mongolia’s northern regions, the consequences are already becoming visible across landscapes where frozen ground has long shaped ecological processes and human livelihoods. As permafrost continues to thaw, scientists and local communities are documenting changes that are altering the relationship between land, water, wildlife and traditional pastoral life.

If there were a sustainable source of livelihood, communities would gain the voice to reach the right channels to advocate for themselves.

In Rajasthan’s Thar desert, an enterprise built around camel milk, traditional livestock practices and locally grown produce is attempting to create a new economic model for pastoralist communities by linking producers directly with premium markets.

Bahula Naturals, founded by Aakriti Srivastava, works with more than 4,000 households across Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jaipur, developing food products while placing local communities, particularly women, at the centre of production and value creation.The idea for the venture began in 2017, when Srivastava travelled to Bajju, a village near the India-Pakistan border in Rajasthan, while working on environmental documentaries and media projects.

She had been asked to cover the lives of 71 migrant families settled in the region.The journey from Bikaner into the desert exposed her to the challenges faced by communities living in a remote landscape, including limited access to resources, basic services and stable livelihoods.

The experience led her to examine how economic opportunities could be created in a region where traditional livelihoods remained vulnerable. Five years later, that effort developed into Bahula Naturals, described by the organisation as a community-owned and community-run enterprise.Srivastava, who grew up in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, pursued journalism before moving to Delhi.

Over several years, she documented the lives and challenges of desert communities through films, articles, research and policy work.Bajju, located in the Thar desert, has around 8,000 households that follow a dual housing system.

Families spend part of the year in the village and move for other periods with their livestock and households to settlements known as dhaanis, located near their agricultural land.This movement pattern has affected access to public services, education and government programmes, according to Srivastava’s observations from her work with communities.

She said the challenges included water availability, service delivery, education, women’s rights and access to information. Her research found that multiple institutions were working on these issues, including government agencies, academic organisations and philanthropic groups, but efforts often lacked long-term coordination.

The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted the need for economic systems that could help communities sustain themselves, she said.Srivastava said pastoralist communities became the focus of her work because of the contrast between their cultural importance and economic position.

Camels, livestock and desert-based livelihoods are closely associated with Rajasthan’s identity, but many pastoralists have faced difficulties in gaining recognition and market access.The name Bahula comes from the Sanskrit word “Bahulata”, meaning plurality, according to the organisation.

The concept was based on bringing together communities, markets and institutions through a shared platform.Bahula Naturals operates through three broad stages. The first involves working with agro-pastoralist producers to support chemical-free farming and livestock practices. This includes access to seeds, animal feed and other inputs.

The enterprise has also introduced household biogas units, with the resulting slurry used as a natural fertiliser to reduce dependence on chemical alternatives.The second stage focuses on processing products across three categories: camel milk and related products, indigenous Rathi cow milk products, and agricultural produce.

The company produces camel milk products including artisanal cheese varieties and a freeze-dried camel milk nutraceutical supplement. It also sells products made from Rathi cow milk, including Bilona ghee and desi paneer prepared using traditional methods.Its agricultural product range includes black wheat flour, black wheat porridge, and cold-pressed mustard and groundnut oils.

Bahula’s largest business segment comes from premium business-to-business markets, where customers pay higher prices for products based on quality assurance, according to the organisation.The enterprise also supplies consumers directly through doorstep delivery in Bikaner and through online sales channels.

Its product range includes dairy items, oils and flour.The organisation operates from Bajju, with a separate office in Bikaner city handling warehousing and distribution. Around 95% of its team members are young people from villages connected to its operational network.Women’s participation is a central part of Bahula’s approach.

Srivastava said her decision to place women at the core of the value chain came from observing their role within rural households and production systems.Women are involved in different stages of the enterprise, from processing activities to community-level operations, creating opportunities for participation in income generation.

The model combines traditional desert livelihoods with market-oriented food production, aiming to improve the economic value of products originating from pastoralist communities.

Bahula Naturals continues to work with households across Rajasthan’s desert regions, focusing on building supply chains around locally available resources and connecting producers with consumers.

The global push for clean energy is intensifying pressure on lithium-rich regions of northern Chile, where Indigenous communities warn that large-scale extraction risks undermining fragile ecosystems, water resources, and traditional ways of life.

Chile, one of the world’s leading producers of lithium, has become central to the energy transition as demand for electric vehicle batteries and energy storage systems accelerates. However, in the high-Andean salt flats where much of the mineral is found, local communities say the costs of extraction are being borne disproportionately at the territorial level.

In the Atacama region, the Colla Indigenous community of Pastos Grandes lives near the Salar de Maricunga, a high-altitude ecosystem characterized by salt flats, wetlands, and limited freshwater sources. The environmental balance in the region depends on underground aquifers and scarce water flows that sustain both human livelihoods and biodiversity.“Living in our territory today means resisting,” said Zulema Mancilla, a member of the Colla community.

She described growing concerns over water depletion linked to lithium extraction, noting that the pumping of underground aquifers has reduced water availability in downstream areas where communities live and work.“We have serious problems with water,” she said, adding that while extraction projects are advancing, local populations face increasing environmental stress.Further north, in the highlands of Tarapacá near the Bolivian border, Aymara communities rely on pastoralism and subsistence agriculture, including llama and alpaca herding and quinoa cultivation.

These activities depend on high-altitude wetlands, known locally as “bofedales,” which are particularly sensitive to changes in water availability.“If this lithium project goes ahead, it will become an enormous ‘sacrifice zone’ for our people,” said Juana Mamani Flores of the Panavinto community, highlighting concerns over the long-term viability of local livelihoods.

For many Indigenous residents, the issue extends beyond environmental impact to encompass cultural and spiritual dimensions. Eva Mamani, also from Panavinto, described the territory as intrinsically connected to community identity and belief systems.“The waters have spirit, the shrubs have spirit, the mountains have spirit,” she said, framing environmental protection as both a practical and cultural imperative.

United Nations human rights officials say such perspectives underscore the need to reframe discussions around the energy transition. Jan Jarab, Regional Representative for South America, noted that areas targeted for lithium extraction are not uninhabited resource zones but living territories shaped by long-standing social and cultural systems.

While communities acknowledge the importance of addressing climate change and transitioning to cleaner energy sources, they emphasize the need for clearer information and stronger safeguards. Samuel García, an Aymara leader, said there is a lack of reliable data on the potential environmental impacts of lithium extraction.“We do not have a specific and reliable study of the damage,” he said, pointing to uncertainty surrounding long-term consequences.

The debate, according to observers, is shifting from whether lithium extraction is necessary to how it is conducted and who bears its costs. UN Human Rights has facilitated dialogues among Indigenous leaders, governments, and industry stakeholders across the “lithium triangle,” a region spanning Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia that holds more than half of the world’s lithium reserves.

These discussions focus on aligning extraction practices with international human rights standards, particularly the principle of free, prior, and informed consent for Indigenous Peoples. Jarab emphasized that affected communities must be involved in decision-making processes and have the opportunity to influence project outcomes.“Communities themselves best understand their needs and know how to care for the environment,” he said, adding that consultation mechanisms should enable equitable participation and benefit-sharing.

The UN has framed the issue within the concept of a “just transition,” warning that without adequate safeguards, the shift to renewable energy could replicate historical patterns of extractive industries, where economic gains are concentrated while environmental and social costs are localized.The role of both governments and corporations is central to this process.

Under the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, companies involved in lithium extraction are expected to conduct due diligence, assess environmental and social impacts, and establish mechanisms to address harm. States, in turn, are responsible for regulating these activities and ensuring compliance with human rights obligations.

Jarab noted that state-owned enterprises, in particular, are expected to uphold higher standards of accountability, given their direct link to public policy and governance.The broader debate reflects a tension between global climate objectives and local realities. As countries accelerate decarbonization efforts, the extraction of critical minerals such as lithium has become essential.

However, the Chilean case illustrates the complexity of ensuring that environmental goals do not come at the expense of vulnerable communities.For Indigenous groups, the stakes extend beyond economic considerations to the preservation of cultural identity and long-term sustainability.

Decisions made in the coming years are likely to shape not only environmental outcomes but also the future of traditional ways of life in the region.The discussion, UN officials say, is ultimately about ensuring that the benefits of the energy transition are distributed equitably, and that its implementation does not undermine the rights of those living in resource-rich territories.