For decades, reproductive policy in China was closely tied to state objectives, with authorities first seeking to limit births through the one-child policy and now attempting to encourage larger families as the country confronts a sustained decline in births.Interviews with women across China, combined with academic research and demographic data, suggest that the legacy of the one-child era continues to influence family decisions even as government priorities have shifted.

While authorities now promote childbirth through subsidies and policy incentives, many women cite economic pressures, changing social expectations and personal autonomy as key factors shaping their choices.Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, family planning and population management have played a significant role in public policy.

During the decades-long one-child policy, which was formally implemented in 1980 and largely ended in 2016, many families were restricted to a single child. Enforcement methods varied across regions, but reports from several parts of the country documented fines, mandatory birth-control procedures and, in some cases, forced abortions and sterilizations.

In Shen County, located on the outskirts of Liaocheng in eastern China’s Shandong province, memories of some of the most stringent enforcement measures remain vivid among older residents.One woman in her 60s, identified only by the surname Li, recalled being subjected to a tubal ligation after giving birth in 1991. According to Li, local authorities were enforcing what became known as the “childless 100 days” campaign, a policy intended to prevent births during a designated period beginning in May of that year.

Li said she was heavily pregnant when local officials transported her and other women to a hospital for procedures intended to terminate pregnancies. She said she went into labor before doctors could carry out the abortion and gave birth to a son inside the hospital.

Afterward, she was fined 6,500 yuan and ordered to undergo sterilization.The Guardian was unable to independently verify all aspects of Li’s account. However, researchers and activists familiar with the period say similar reports emerged from the region during that time.Another Shen County resident, now in her 70s, said she was one month away from giving birth when she received an injection that induced labor and ended her pregnancy.

She said women who resisted family-planning directives faced threats that included property demolition, detention and restrictions on employment.Shandong, China’s second-most populous province, has long been viewed by scholars and activists as a region where central government policies were often implemented rigorously.

Human rights activist Yang Jianli, who is originally from Shandong, described the “childless 100 days” campaign as one of the most extreme examples of one-child policy enforcement that he had encountered.The Shandong provincial government did not respond to a request for comment regarding the historical accounts.

Although comprehensive data on the campaign are unavailable, demographic analysis by Yi Fuxian, a senior scientist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and a longtime critic of China’s population policies, indicates that birth numbers in Shen County and neighboring Guan County fell sharply during the period in question.

More than a decade after China began dismantling birth restrictions, policymakers face a different demographic challenge. China’s birth rate has continued to decline despite efforts to encourage larger families. Official data show that the birth rate fell to 5.63 births per 1,000 people last year, marking a record low.

The government has introduced a range of measures aimed at increasing births, including financial incentives and tax benefits. However, researchers say economic realities and evolving attitudes toward family life have limited the effectiveness of those initiatives.A growing body of academic research suggests that decades of restrictive family-planning policies reshaped social expectations about ideal family size.

One study published last year found that growing up as an only child contributed to a significant reduction in the number of children people expected or desired to have.For many younger Chinese adults, concerns about housing costs, education expenses and financial security appear to outweigh policy incentives.Wang Yixuan, a 26-year-old practitioner of traditional Chinese medicine, said she does not currently plan to have children.

She said achieving financial independence remains a higher priority.Jia, the filmmaker based in Beijing, said women today possess greater freedom in making decisions about reproduction than previous generations. She said many no longer view motherhood as an obligation and increasingly approach family planning as a personal choice.Recent survey data point to a significant shift in attitudes among younger women.

One study found that nearly half of women aged between 18 and 24 reported that they did not want children, compared with just 6% in 2012. The proportion of men expressing the same view also increased during the period, although at a lower rate, reaching nearly 20%.In Shen County, restaurant worker Chen Ying said economic considerations play a decisive role in family decisions.

While earlier generations faced penalties for having additional children, she said many families today are limiting family size because of the financial burden associated with raising children.Yun Zhou, a social demographer at the University of Michigan, said the one-child policy left a lasting imprint on perceptions of reproductive rights and family planning.

According to Zhou, generations of state intervention contributed to a broader understanding that reproductive decisions were subject to government influence rather than being viewed solely as personal choices.

The effects of those decades remain visible across China, where a generation raised largely as only children is now making decisions about marriage, parenthood and family size under a dramatically different demographic reality.

The diplomatic exchange follows Ghana’s decision last month to arrange flights for hundreds of its nationals seeking to leave South Africa after a wave of protests and violence targeting foreign migrants intensified in several communities.

Tensions escalated after Ghana’s embassy in Pretoria published footage showing passengers aboard a repatriation flight waving Ghanaian flags as they departed South Africa. The images drew attention across social media and prompted a sharp response from South African authorities.

South African Foreign Minister Ronald Lamola said Pretoria had initially sought to assist Ghana’s government in facilitating the voluntary return of its citizens in a constructive and humanitarian manner. However, he accused some Ghanaian officials of presenting an incomplete picture of events and undermining diplomatic norms.

“Our initial hope was simply to assist the Government of Ghana in repatriating its citizens in a humane and cordial manner,” Lamola said in comments posted on X. He added that South Africa would not continue to accept what he called “public spectacles” marked by misinformation and lacking diplomatic decorum.

His remarks were directed at statements made by Ghanaian Foreign Minister Sam Okudzeto Ablakwa, whose comments accompanied public discussion surrounding the evacuation effort.

The dispute highlights growing strains caused by recurring outbreaks of xenophobic sentiment in South Africa, where economic hardship and high unemployment have periodically fueled hostility toward foreign nationals. With unemployment exceeding 30%, migrants are often blamed by some groups for competition over jobs, housing and public services.

South Africa has long attracted both documented and undocumented workers from across the continent due to its comparatively diversified economy and greater employment opportunities. However, periodic anti-immigrant violence has remained a persistent challenge for successive governments.

Recent tensions intensified after a widely circulated video appeared to show a Ghanaian national being assaulted, sparking outrage among migrant communities and prompting renewed calls for protection of foreign residents.

The repatriation flights organized by Ghana underscore growing concerns among African governments about the safety of their citizens living in South Africa. At the same time, the public disagreement between Pretoria and Accra reflects the diplomatic sensitivities surrounding migration, public security and regional relations as authorities seek to manage the fallout from renewed anti-foreigner unrest.

Neither government has indicated any immediate change in bilateral relations, but the exchange has drawn attention to the broader challenge of addressing xenophobic violence while preserving regional cooperation and freedom of movement across the continent.

.The unrest, now in its fourth day, has disrupted activity in one of Asia’s largest planned industrial townships, where thousands of manufacturing units operate. Protesters, many employed in small factories, have been demanding higher wages and improved labour conditions amid rising living costs linked to global supply disruptions.

Workers said their grievances include long working hours, unpaid overtime and lack of adherence to government labour guidelines. Vinay Mahoti, a worker from Bihar employed in a hosiery unit, said demonstrations that began within factory premises spread to the streets as employees from multiple companies joined in.

Visuals showed protesters marching, chanting slogans and clashing with security personnel, with some overturning vehicles and setting them on fire while others hurled stones at barricades.

Local police said they were attempting to restore order using limited force. “Senior police and administrative officials are making persistent efforts to counsel the workers and urge them to maintain peace and restraint,” the Gautam Budh Nagar police said in a statement.

Narendra Kashyap called on demonstrators to engage in dialogue with authorities, urging a peaceful resolution to the dispute.The protests follow similar labour unrest in the neighbouring state of Haryana last week, where the government responded to worker demands by ordering a 35% increase in minimum wages.

Rising inflation and cost pressures, partly driven by global energy disruptions linked to the ongoing Middle East conflict, have intensified economic strain on industrial workers, contributing to growing unrest in key manufacturing regions.