Mongolia’s rapidly warming climate is transforming some of the most southerly permafrost landscapes in the Northern Hemisphere, altering ecosystems, water systems and traditional pastoral livelihoods across large areas of the country.

Researchers and local communities report visible changes in northern Mongolia, where frozen ground that has remained intact for centuries is increasingly thawing as temperatures rise. The shift is affecting wetlands, rivers, grazing lands and wildlife habitats in a country whose environment has long been shaped by cold climatic conditions.

Although Mongolia is not commonly associated with the Arctic, scientists note that many of its environmental processes closely resemble those found in higher northern latitudes. The country experiences severe winters and contains extensive permafrost regions. Ulaanbaatar, the national capital, is widely recognized as the coldest capital city in the world, while substantial portions of Mongolia lie within the Arctic Ocean drainage basin.

Permafrost, the layer of ground that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years, plays a critical role in maintaining the stability of Mongolia’s northern landscapes. It regulates water movement, supports wetland systems and helps sustain vegetation that serves as grazing land for livestock and habitat for wildlife.

Researchers working in northern Mongolia have documented growing evidence that these frozen soils are becoming increasingly unstable. As permafrost thaws, the physical structure of the land changes. Ground subsidence, shifts in drainage patterns and the formation or disappearance of wetlands are becoming more common in affected regions.

Photographic evidence from northern Mongolia shows horses grazing near wetlands shaped by permafrost-dependent hydrological systems. Scientists say such landscapes are particularly sensitive to rising temperatures because their ecological balance depends on the persistence of frozen ground beneath the surface.

Changes in permafrost are also influencing freshwater ecosystems. Lakes, streams and wetlands that rely on frozen soils to regulate water flow are experiencing alterations in size, depth and seasonal behavior. Researchers say these shifts have implications for biodiversity, water availability and ecosystem resilience.

Bird populations that depend on wetland habitats are among the species affected by environmental changes. Water bodies in northern Mongolia provide breeding and feeding grounds for migratory birds and other wildlife. Any modification to hydrological conditions can influence the ecological functions these habitats perform.

The impacts extend beyond natural ecosystems and are increasingly being felt by rural communities. Livestock herding remains a central component of Mongolia’s economy and cultural identity. Many families depend on seasonal grazing patterns that have developed over generations in response to local environmental conditions.

Herders in permafrost regions report noticeable changes in grazing conditions as warming temperatures alter pasture quality and water availability. According to local observations, areas that once remained moist and productive throughout the grazing season are becoming more vulnerable to drying and ecological stress.

Among domestic animals, yaks are considered particularly vulnerable to warming conditions. The animals depend on cool temperatures, reliable water supplies and moist pastures. Rising temperatures and changing environmental conditions are placing additional pressure on herding systems that rely on yak populations for food production and income generation.

Herders have reported concerns about the effects of changing pasture conditions on milk production. Yak milk is used to produce a range of traditional foods, including airag and cheese, which form part of local diets and economic activity in rural communities. Reduced pasture quality can affect both livestock health and agricultural productivity.

Researchers emphasize that scientific monitoring alone cannot fully capture the scale and significance of environmental transformation underway in Mongolia’s permafrost regions. Local communities possess generations of accumulated knowledge about seasonal cycles, snow cover, water behavior and ecological conditions.

According to Vera Kuklina, an associate research professor in the Department of Geographical Sciences at the University of Maryland, local and Indigenous communities have observed changes in frozen landscapes long before many of those trends appeared in scientific datasets. She said knowledge developed through long-term interaction with these environments offers valuable insights into ongoing environmental change.

Kuklina noted that integrating scientific research with community observations provides a broader understanding of how climate-related changes affect both ecosystems and human societies. Such collaboration, she said, helps identify impacts that may not be immediately visible through conventional measurements alone.

Scientists studying Mongolia’s cryosphere increasingly view the country as an important location for understanding broader patterns of climate change across cold-region environments. Because Mongolia sits near the southern limit of extensive Northern Hemisphere permafrost, changes occurring there may provide insight into how frozen landscapes respond to sustained warming.

Researchers continue to monitor shifts in vegetation, hydrology and soil stability as temperatures rise. The observations contribute to a growing body of evidence showing that climate-driven changes in permafrost are affecting environmental systems far beyond the Arctic itself.

For Mongolia’s northern regions, the consequences are already becoming visible across landscapes where frozen ground has long shaped ecological processes and human livelihoods. As permafrost continues to thaw, scientists and local communities are documenting changes that are altering the relationship between land, water, wildlife and traditional pastoral life.

Energy experts have criticised former British prime minister Tony Blair’s call for greater oil and gas extraction, arguing that moving away from the country’s net zero targets would increase long-term economic and climate risks.

The criticism followed an essay by Blair in which he argued that the United Kingdom should use its remaining oil and gas reserves and reconsider its target of achieving net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.

Blair’s position has renewed debate over the future of the UK’s energy policy, particularly as the country faces rising concerns over energy security, extreme weather and the cost of living.Energy specialists said expanding fossil fuel production would not provide a reliable solution to energy challenges and could expose households and businesses to continued volatility in international fuel markets.

Ed Matthew, UK programme director at the climate thinktank E3G, described Blair’s intervention as out of step with current energy and environmental pressures.Matthew said recent heat records and international energy disruptions demonstrated the risks associated with continued dependence on fossil fuels.

He argued that renewable energy offered a more stable alternative because operating costs were low once infrastructure was built.Blair’s comments came as the UK recorded periods of unusually high temperatures and increased solar power generation. Scientists have linked rising temperatures and more frequent heat extremes to climate change driven largely by greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels.

Medical professionals warned that extreme heat could increase health risks, particularly for older people and young children. Farmers also reported pressure on livestock and crops, with economic losses expected to exceed hundreds of millions of pounds.The debate has centred on whether the UK should prioritise domestic fossil fuel extraction or accelerate investment in renewable energy and low-carbon technologies.

Supporters of increased oil and gas production argue that domestic resources could improve energy independence and reduce reliance on imported fuels. Critics say fossil fuel markets remain globally connected and that new extraction would not shield consumers from international price changes.

The UK has committed to reaching net zero emissions by 2050, a target that requires substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions across electricity generation, transport, industry and buildings.Experts opposing Blair’s proposal said abandoning the target could weaken investment certainty for clean energy industries and slow the development of technologies needed for the transition.

Renewable energy capacity has expanded in recent years, with falling costs making technologies such as solar and wind increasingly competitive. However, the transition also requires improvements in energy storage, grid infrastructure and industrial adaptation.

Blair has previously questioned aspects of current climate policy and argued that energy strategies should focus more heavily on technological development and economic competitiveness.His latest comments have drawn attention because they come during a period of heightened global energy uncertainty.

International conflicts and supply disruptions have contributed to fluctuations in oil and gas prices, reinforcing arguments on both sides of the energy debate.Climate policy experts said the central challenge for governments was balancing energy reliability, affordability and emissions reduction.

They argued that investment decisions made now would influence the UK’s energy system for decades, with consequences for both economic resilience and climate risks.

Years of drought, recurring floods, armed conflict and shrinking humanitarian assistance have forced millions of Somalis into increasingly precarious conditions, with many displaced families now struggling to survive in overcrowded camps around the capital, Mogadishu.

Among them is 38-year-old Zeynab Ibrahim, a single mother who fled her hometown near Burhakaba in central Somalia after years of failed rains devastated local agriculture and pushed her family into extreme hardship.For three years, Ibrahim watched as drought tightened its grip on her community.

Reservoirs dried up, crops failed and food became increasingly scarce. Hunger and disease spread through the area, claiming numerous lives, including four of her 10 children.“We tried every means to survive – selling dried grass and digging up water from the barren earth.

Unfortunately, there was nothing left, so we had no choice but to escape to save our children,” Ibrahim said while sitting outside a makeshift shelter in an internally displaced persons camp in Mogadishu’s Kahda district.The journey to the capital came only after all other options had been exhausted.

Assisted by a truck driver transporting other displaced families from drought-stricken areas around Burhakaba, she joined the growing number of Somalis seeking refuge in the city.“So hunger is what brought us here,” she said.Ibrahim is one of more than one million displaced people now living in informal settlements across Mogadishu, where many families continue to face severe shortages of food, clean water and basic services despite escaping the immediate effects of drought in rural areas.

Before being displaced, her family relied entirely on farming for survival. Maize, beans, sesame and vegetables grown on their land provided both food and income. As rainfall disappeared, however, agricultural production collapsed.

“Our livelihoods depended on what we could grow on the ground, including maize, beans, sesame and vegetables. But the ground dried because there was no rain,” she said.Her experience reflects a broader pattern unfolding across Somalia, where communities increasingly face overlapping climate and security pressures.

Repeated droughts destroy crops and livestock, while floods that follow periods of extreme dryness often wash away fragile infrastructure and further undermine agricultural recovery.For many households, these environmental shocks occur against a backdrop of persistent conflict and insecurity, limiting opportunities to rebuild livelihoods or safely return home.

The result has been a growing displacement crisis that has reshaped communities across the country. Families forced from rural areas frequently arrive in urban centers with few possessions and limited means of earning an income, increasing their dependence on humanitarian support at a time when aid resources are under strain.

Adan Roble, another displaced Somali, said the combined effects of environmental disasters and insecurity have left many families struggling to meet even their most basic needs.“Imagine losing everything and trying to survive without food and clean water, while fighting continues and drones keep flying overhead,” Roble said.

Roble has experienced multiple climate-related disasters. Years of drought destroyed his crops and rendered his farmland unproductive, undermining the economic foundation on which his family depended.Stories such as those of Ibrahim and Roble illustrate the mounting challenges facing Somalia as climate-related shocks become more frequent and severe.

Rural communities that depend heavily on rain-fed agriculture are often among the most vulnerable, with prolonged dry periods quickly translating into crop failures, livestock losses and widespread food insecurity.For many displaced families, arriving in Mogadishu has provided safety from immediate environmental threats but not from poverty.

Conditions in many informal settlements remain difficult, with limited access to employment opportunities, healthcare, sanitation and reliable food supplies.As climate pressures, conflict and humanitarian constraints converge, displaced households continue to face uncertain futures.

Families that once relied on farming and livestock now find themselves dependent on irregular aid and struggling to rebuild their lives far from the land that once sustained them.

For Ibrahim, the move to Mogadishu was not a choice but a last resort after years of watching her community deteriorate. Although she escaped the drought that devastated her hometown, the daily struggle against hunger and deprivation continues in the camp she now calls home.

As temperatures across India’s capital continue to climb during another summer of extreme heat, the impact is being felt most acutely by those with little protection from the elements. For the hundreds of thousands of people living on Delhi’s streets, daily life unfolds under relentless heat, limited access to essential services and constant uncertainty about safety and survival.

Among them is Shahida, a 20-year-old mother who lives with her family beneath a flyover in Delhi. Their home consists of a section of pavement where they sleep under mosquito nets and store their belongings. Throughout the day and night, they remain exposed to conditions that climate experts say are becoming increasingly dangerous as heatwaves intensify across the region.

Delhi has been experiencing sustained high temperatures, with daytime readings regularly reaching 43 degrees Celsius. Nighttime temperatures have also remained unusually elevated, providing little relief after sunset. According to reported meteorological data, the city recently recorded its warmest May night in nearly 14 years.As authorities issue repeated heat alerts and many residents seek refuge indoors, an estimated 300,000 people living without permanent shelter continue to face direct exposure to extreme temperatures.

Their vulnerability extends beyond heat alone, encompassing challenges related to food security, drinking water, sanitation and healthcare access.Climate researchers say homelessness significantly increases the risks associated with extreme weather.

Chandni Singh, a lead author with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, noted that people without stable housing often lack reliable access to basic resources required to cope with prolonged periods of heat.“Beyond exposure alone, homelessness is often accompanied by unreliable access to food, water and healthcare all of which are essential to cope with and adapt to extreme heat,” Singh said.

The consequences can be severe. According to a report by the Centre for Holistic Development, at least 192 homeless individuals died during a nine-day period of extreme heat in Delhi last summer. The deaths highlighted the disproportionate burden borne by vulnerable populations during heatwave conditions.

For Shahida, summer brings anxiety long before temperatures reach their highest levels. Having spent most of her life living in similar circumstances, she said the arrival of hotter months is accompanied by concerns about health, safety and the wellbeing of her young daughter, Jannat.Throughout the day, the family must manage basic needs while exposed to intense heat.

Access to cold drinking water is limited. They rely in part on a nearby public institution that permits them to fill containers during evening hours, allowing them to store water for later use. The supply, however, remains constrained and dependent on availability.The challenge of securing shelter is equally significant.

According to Indu Prakash Singh, a member of a state-level shelter monitoring committee established by India’s Supreme Court, Delhi faces a substantial shortage of accommodation for homeless residents. He estimates that the city’s shelter capacity falls short of demand by approximately 75%, leaving many families with few alternatives to sleeping outdoors.

Although a women’s night shelter operates less than 200 metres from where Shahida’s family sleeps, she said conditions inside often provide little respite from the heat.“It is even hotter inside than outside,” she said.The concern is echoed by shelter advocates. Singh said many facilities consist of portable cabin-style structures that absorb and retain heat during summer months.

In some locations, cooling systems are insufficient or non-functional, reducing their effectiveness during periods of extreme weather.Conditions inside shelters can also become crowded, particularly during heatwaves when more people seek relief. Reports from facilities in Delhi indicate that access to cooling equipment is often limited, leading to competition among residents for the coolest spaces.As evening approaches and temperatures begin to decline slightly, daily routines continue beneath the flyover.

Families prepare simple meals, organize belongings and make arrangements for the night. Shahida’s family reheats rice and curry cooked earlier in the day before setting up sleeping mats on the pavement.The reduction in temperature after sunset offers only partial relief.

Even at night, the heat remains significant, and concerns about security persist. Women living on the streets frequently report remaining alert long after lying down to sleep, aware of potential risks to themselves and their children.Shahida said rest is often difficult to achieve despite physical exhaustion. The combination of environmental stress, uncertainty and responsibility for a young child creates a constant state of vigilance.

“Even when your eyes close, your mind stays awake. I need to be always protective of myself and my child,” she said.Around her, other families settle in for the night under mosquito nets and makeshift shelters. Some fan children in the humid air while others arrange possessions in an effort to create a small sense of privacy amid the traffic and noise of the city.

Experts increasingly view such experiences as evidence of the broader social consequences of climate change. Rising temperatures, more frequent heatwaves and warmer nights are expected to place additional strain on urban populations, particularly those lacking adequate housing and access to public services.For homeless residents, adaptation options remain limited.

Without permanent shelter, air conditioning or reliable access to cooling infrastructure, exposure to dangerous temperatures becomes an unavoidable feature of daily life.As traffic continues to flow above and around the flyover where she lives, Shahida said her focus remains on caring for her daughter and enduring each day as it comes.

Looking at the child sleeping beneath a mosquito net on the pavement, she described Jannat as the source of her determination to keep going despite the hardships of life on the streets.“Maybe she is the only hope I still hold on to,” Shahida said. “Otherwise, I don’t know what is left.”

The World Meteorological Organization said there is an 86 percent chance that at least one year between 2026 and 2030 will surpass 2024 as the warmest year ever recorded. The agency also projected a 75 percent probability that average global temperatures over the five-year period will exceed 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.

The warning comes as parts of Europe experience unusually early heatwaves, with temperature records broken in Britain and France during May.

Scientists linked the rising temperatures partly to the expected return of the El Nino climate pattern by late 2026, which historically boosts global warming. WMO climate expert Leon Hermanson said the phenomenon could make 2027 a potential record-breaking year.

The agency stressed that temporary breaches of the 1.5C threshold do not automatically mean the Paris climate target has permanently failed, as the agreement measures long-term warming trends over decades rather than individual years.

The report also warned of accelerated warming in the Arctic, where winter temperatures are forecast to rise at more than three times the global average. Wetter conditions are expected across northern Europe, the Sahel, Alaska and Siberia, while drought risks may intensify in the Amazon region.

A network of U.S. scientists is intensifying efforts to develop more climate-resilient apple trees as increasingly volatile weather patterns threaten orchards across major fruit-growing regions, raising concerns about long-term risks to an industry that generates roughly $23 billion in annual economic activity.

Researchers at Cornell University, the United States Department of Agriculture and several partner institutions are focusing on rootstocks, the underground foundation of commercial apple trees that influences growth, productivity and resistance to environmental stress.

The work has gained urgency since a series of severe temperature swings damaged orchards in the northeastern United States in 2015, an event that some researchers later linked to a phenomenon known as “rapid apple decline.”

Terence Robinson, a horticulture professor at Cornell University, recalled how unusually warm temperatures in February 2015 were followed by a sharp cold snap that swept through New York and into fruit-growing regions of Pennsylvania.“We got a warm-up in February, and then a big cold air mass moved into New York and pushed all the way down into the fruit-growing area of Pennsylvania,” Robinson said.

“In the spring, we started seeing tree damage.”Scientists concluded that the rapid temperature drop, estimated at as much as 65 degrees Fahrenheit within days, disrupted trees that had already begun emerging from winter dormancy. Researchers found particularly severe damage in rootstocks rather than trunks or branches.

The findings drew attention to vulnerabilities in some of the apple industry’s most widely used rootstocks, including the M9 variety developed more than a century ago at England’s East Malling Research Station.Commercial apple trees are typically produced through grafting, a process that combines two different plants.

The upper fruit-bearing portion, known as the scion, comes from commercial varieties such as Gala or Red Delicious. That section is attached to a separate rootstock selected for characteristics including tree size, productivity and disease resistance.

Because rootstocks determine how trees absorb water, respond to stress and tolerate environmental conditions, scientists increasingly view them as central to protecting orchards from climate-related disruptions.Robinson and USDA scientist Gennaro Fazio jointly oversee the Geneva Apple Rootstock Breeding Program, based in Geneva, New York.

The initiative, operated by Cornell University and the USDA, is the only commercial apple rootstock breeding effort in North America focused on developing new foundations for orchards.Since 1968, researchers in the program have crossed and evaluated thousands of apple rootstocks.

Early efforts concentrated largely on disease resistance, particularly protection against fire blight, a destructive bacterial disease affecting apple and pear trees.More recently, researchers have expanded their priorities to include drought tolerance, resistance to high-salinity soils and improved survival during unstable winter conditions.

“We still continue wanting to have a rootstock that is dwarfing, because dwarf orchards are much more profitable, and that produces early,” Robinson said. “We have broadened our list of goals for this program to include drought resistance, tolerance of high-salt-content soils and the ability to withstand more moderate winters.”The process is lengthy.

Developing a commercial rootstock can take decades because scientists must cross parent trees, evaluate offspring for desirable characteristics and test performance across multiple climates and growing conditions.Cornell released its first commercial rootstock in 1997, nearly three decades after the program began.

Some varieties introduced in 2023 originated from genetic crosses first made during the 1970s.“It requires long-term commitment to learn to love apple rootstocks,” Robinson said.Researchers say the challenge has become more complicated because climate variability is increasing faster than orchard replacement cycles.

Apple orchards are typically expected to remain productive for 15 to 30 years, meaning growers must make planting decisions without knowing exactly how weather patterns may evolve over the lifespan of their trees.

Lee Kalcsits, a professor of tree fruit physiology at Washington State University, leads the Strengthening Pear and Apple Resistance to Climate project, known as Sparc, a national research collaboration studying how extreme weather affects fruit trees.

Kalcsits said breeding efforts should prioritize adaptability rather than designing trees for one specific future climate scenario.“We need to be mindful that the rootstocks we select are adaptable,” he said. “It’s not that they’re adapted to a future climate, but that they’re adaptable.”Research published by Kalcsits and colleagues in 2024 found that both fall and spring temperatures are warming in major U.S. apple-growing regions.

Warmer conditions can interfere with the chilling requirements apple trees need before flowering and can also cause trees to leave dormancy earlier, increasing exposure to damaging cold events.Scientists say abrupt winter fluctuations have become a growing concern as climate-driven disruptions to atmospheric circulation allow Arctic air masses to move farther south into the United States.

Robinson said damaging cold snaps have struck major apple-producing areas, including southern Pennsylvania and western Michigan, four times since 2015.Rootstocks can influence how trees respond to those conditions by affecting dormancy timing, cold tolerance and water use.

Some newer rootstocks developed through the Geneva program have shown reduced damage during false springs followed by hard freezes compared with older standards such as M9.Researchers are also turning to wild apple populations from central Asia, where domesticated apples originated, to expand genetic diversity and identify additional stress-resistance traits.

Experimental rootstocks are tested nationwide through a research collaboration known as NC-140, which evaluates orchard performance across multiple states. One test site operates at North Carolina State University’s Mountain Horticultural Crops Research Station near Asheville.

Mike Parker, a tree fruit extension specialist at North Carolina State University, said scientists monitor survival rates, trunk growth, fruit size and yields over many years before recommending new rootstocks to commercial growers.“When we put the replicated trials in multiple states, there’s things that we find out real quick, like that this rootstock is a dog and ain’t going to fly,” Parker said.

“We would much rather kill trees at our research station than have growers lose trees on their farm.”Parker has overseen the university’s rootstock evaluations since 1996 and, like Robinson, is approaching retirement.

Robinson said he is concerned that long-term agricultural breeding programs may struggle to attract younger researchers, many of whom prefer working on commercially visible fruit varieties rather than root systems that can take decades to develop.

He also expressed concern that funding agencies could eventually scale back support for long-duration breeding programs if policymakers conclude that existing rootstocks are sufficient for current industry needs.“I fear that they’ll say: ‘We have enough rootstocks, let’s just close down this effort,’” Robinson said.

“And for things that we’re facing right now, we probably have a good series of rootstocks available. But it’s these emerging problems, that you don’t really think of or didn’t plan for, that you might not be able to respond to if they shut down the program.”